'NIETZSCHE: THE POLITICS OF PHYSIOLOGY'
BY
MARTIN JENKINS
Unlike the modern ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau or Karl Marx where social structures and dynamics of a society are cited as creating social problems, unrest and protest, Nietzsche appears to locate the cause in the physiology of people or strata of peoples themselves. Thus he dismisses those who blame society for their ills as not knowing the real reasons as to why they suffer.[1] Consequently, Daniel Ahern calls Nietzsche a 'cultural physician' as he analyses cultures, values their values and diagnoses accordingly.[2] As known, Nietzsche analysed Western Culture as forged both by Christianity and in the Nineteenth century, by the then emerging 'Modern Ideas' of equal rights, democracy, socialism. Whilst Nietzsche is violently critical of both I will briefly analyse why, arguing that Nietzsche's conclusions are based on false premises and are therefore wrong.
Slaves, Priests & Socrates
In On the Genealogy of Morality, Nietzsche paints an originary social picture of physiologically healthy noble warrior aristocrats and sick slave masses.[3] The aristocrats health entailed proactive, physical activity (war, adventure, hunting, dancing) and their values, perspectives of life were correspondingly affirmative. The slaves were unhappy -- not because of their situation as slaves but because of their weariness, exhaustion and the sickness that follows from this. The sickness leads them to hate their existence, hate their lives, and devalue the earth. Enabling an escape from weariness and exhaustion, the slaves vent ressentiment against the noble aristocrats blaming them for their sickness and suffering. At the same time, there has been a split away from the noble aristocrats by the Priestly caste. Once brothers in arms with the warrior aristocrats, practices Nietzsche terms the Ascetic Ideal, are adopted by the Priests to demonstrate their singular piety. Practices such as fasting, sexual abstinence, flights into the nothingness of self-hypnosis, over-refinement, diet, are not only means of piety they are also signs of something unhealthy.[4] The Priests view their suffering as evidence that are too good for this existence and long for another one, hating this earthly one and like the slaves, they blame the reigning lords of the earth for their sickness. Due to their weakened condition, they cannot physically defeat the warrior aristocrats.
Consequently, insofar as they are weak there grows a proportionally inverse hatred against the Aristocrats. Whilst such vehement ressentiment cannot be actualised in physical deeds, it is done with words and beliefs. A whole new anti-worldly metaphysical, religious perspective develops which surreptitiously undermines the aristocrats. The ressentiment of the Priest unites with the ressentiment of the slaves and he becomes their shepherd. As their shepherd, two things occur. Firstly, the revolt is completed when the values of the aristocrats are revalued by the Priest/ Slaves in what Nietzsche terms 'the slave revolt in morality'. The aristocrats values of 'Good' and 'Bad' are inverted by the hegemony of Priests/ Slaves into their values of 'Good' and 'Evil'.[5] The slave revolt in morality triumphs and the direction of culture is changed.
Secondly, at the same time, the ressentiment of the slaves towards their ex-masters is now, at the direction of the Priest, turned against themselves. No longer are the devalued aristocrats to blame for the suffering of the slaves, it is they themselves who are to blame -- for they have sinned. Their suffering is a result of sin. Atoning practices, rituals and perspectives of the priest's Ascetic Ideal are inscribed into the masses. Cultural values are now reactive, life and the earth are devalued, shackled by rancorous practices, perspectives in favour of the reality of another, worldly existence.[6]
Socrates
Similar themes emerge with Nietzsche's treatment of Socrates -- who is invariably taken to be the father of Western Philosophy. Instead of eulogising him, Nietzsche also finds him, like the slaves and Priest, exhausted and weary of life. Socrates' cure for his condition is: 'superfetation of the logical'[7] Indeed this, along with his use of dialectics in bamboozling Greek aristocrats is symptomatic of ressentiment, of seeking revenge against them.[8] Although suffering from the same problem as his fellow Greeks, Socrates offered a cure:
the old Athens was coming to an end -- and Socrates
understood that all the World had need of him-- his
expedient, his cure, his personal art of self preservation
...everywhere the instincts were in anarchy; everywhere
people were but five steps from excess: the monstrum in
animo was the universal danger. 'The instincts want to play
the tyrant, we must devise a counter-tyrant who is
stronger...'[9]
The instincts were in anarchy -- more of this below -- and Socrates had a cure; not the Ascetic Ideal of the Priests but the tyrant of reason. Greeks became fanatic about being absurdly rational thereby suppressing every other instinct. Logic, Reason and Thought were hypostasised over the body, its drives and the earth.
Arguably, Jewish Theology synthesised with post-Socratic Greek Philosophy. It's values and perspectives subsequently dominated Western civilisation for the next two thousand years. In the nineteenth century, its values and perspectives emerge in 'modern ideas'.
Modern Ideas
Nietzsche proclaimed that God died in the later Nineteenth century. Christianity paved the way for the 'modern ideas' of democracy, socialism and its extremes of anarchism. As all were equal before God there being no privileged exceptions, the ressentiment that fuelled equality continues under secular guises.
The 'equality of souls before God', this falseness, this
pretext for the rancour of everything low-minded, this
explosive concept which becomes revolution, a modern idea
and the principle of the decline of the whole social order
-- is Christian dynamite.[10]
Although Christian in origin, equality is one of the key themes proffered by modern ideas. For 'the democratic movement is the heir to Christianity'.[11] Like the slaves before them, Anarchists and by implication, socialists and democrats, are dismissed as a declining strata who, when they demand rights, justice, equal rights are seeking revenge for their suffering.[12] Whereas the Christian denigrates this world, seeking revenge in the judgement of the next world, the socialist worker denigrates society and seeks revenge in triumphant revolution. Both are decadents united in their need to appropriate blame for their suffering.
Why do they suffer? Why do the slaves, Socrates and the advocates of modern ideas suffer according to Nietzsche? He declares them degenerates, decadents: less than what a human being ought to be. Why are they decadents? Because of their physiological sickness. This sickness is attributable to a internal anarchy of the drives where each drive -- as a manifestation of will to power -- is combating every other drive. Allowing each pathological drive to express itself expends energy. The person becomes unfocussed and the expenditure of power vented now this way and now that, depletes their vitality. They become weary,
exhausted, depressed and sick.[13] Hence they seek respite from their sickness, this is found with the active distraction of ressentiment -- 'I am suffering, someone else is to blame'. This conclusion employs a causality that concludes their suffering as an effect of someone else's actions. Nietzsche challenges such erroneous thinking when he states that an effect is not attributable to an efficient cause, it a matter of physiological immanence. That for example, some one is healthy is not an effect of diet, it is attributable to their physiology.[14] So in seeking to blame an external cause such as the prevailing social order, the advocates of 'modern ideas' are missing the real physiological source of their suffering -- themselves. The cultural physician alone has discovered the real, physiological basis of specific cultural valuations underneath Christianity and Modern Ideas.
And what of the values borne of this depleted life -- vitality of the suffering and sick? Principally, these are equality and pity. The 'herd' recognises neither god nor master: they suffer, the privileged are to blame for this and will be subject to the ressentiment fuelled, revenging, levelling blade of equality. Nietzsche opposes equality as it is contrary to the essential nature of life -- which is will to power. Healthy expressions of will to power as the very dynamic of life will naturally entail inequality between people. There will be differences between 'man and man, caste and caste' imbuing a pathos of distance, an order of rank, commensurate with the will to power that one is. Flowing from the top will be the new philosopher/ creators. In other words, a pyramid-like hierarchy is synonymous with a healthy society.[15] In negating this, equality negates health and affirmative life.[16]
Modern Ideas of Justice are also based on Pity but a pathological pity expressive of weakness and sickness. It wants to abolish all suffering-- which is contrary to the nature of life. Nietzsche comments:
We think that harshness, slavery, violence, danger in the
streets and in the heart, concealment, stoicism, the art of
experiment and devilry of every sort; that everything evil,
tyrannical, predatory and snakelike in humanity serves just
as well as its opposite to enhance the species 'humanity'.[17]
Struggle, hardship, problems, enhance humanity just as well as it's opposite of happiness, peace and ease. Modern Ideas eschew the former for the latter. Pity further makes the already suffering worse. Pity is the opposite of 'the tonic affects that heighten the energy of vital feelings'.[18] It is a contagious depressive which makes the sickness worse and the hatred of earthly life worse. Further, Nietzsche condemns Christian Pity as keeping alive all that would otherwise have perished.[19]
Challenges by which humanity grows, develops and enhances itself, will be avoided as they involve suffering and this has been abolished by pity.[20] Equality will prevent differences -- principally those of strong, daring, creative individuals from developing. All that will remain, according to Nietzsche, is a timid, uniform herd animal, the ideal of modern ideas which regards itself as the justification and culmination of history. This type of life does not want to grow, it wants a quiet, green pasture happiness. All this has developed from decadence, now universalised and valorised as the norm, as good.
So we find that according to 'the cultural physician' Nietzsche, the growing demands for universal suffrage, the development of a labour movement, the protests of socialist and anarchist politics found in many European countries were a response not to 19th century capitalist, industrial development and the corresponding conditions they created; they are valuations, perspectives borne of a ressentiment from the labouring masses and their weariness, exhaustion, their suffering with life. Their suffering, symptomatic of real, physiological causes of disaggregated drives.
Wrong Diagnosis?
I will examine Nietzsche's diagnosis for the problem of 'Modern Ideas' another time. Here I would like to ask, Is his contention that modern decadent humanity and not social structures are the cause of social unrest, protest convincing? Firstly, I think Nietzsche's opposition to Socialism predates any physiological explanation for it. From at least Human, All Too Human, Nietzsche evidences his disdain of Socialism.[21] His physiological justifications can be seen as later pretexts for already established opposition.
Secondly, even discounting the point made above, the veracity of the physiological explanation relies on dubious biological premises. According to Gregory Moore, Nietzsche was familiar with Darwinian and pre-Darwinian theories of evolution.[22] In particular, that of Carl Nageli. Nageli held that evolution moves towards perfection, this understood as a greater degree of organisational complexity and division of labour. Hence the more complex and ordered the interior drives of an individual/ species, the higher they are.[23] As with the masses, the physiological inner anarchy of their drives makes them lesser in this evolutionary sense; the motivation of greater complexity being Will to Power. The influence of these views on Nietzsche's accounts of modern ideas and Christianity is clear. I would maintain, it is also wrong. It rests on teleology, and evolution, arguably, does not.
In sum, the premises on which Nietzsche's conclusion rest concerning Modern Ideas etc. are unsound. Rather, to paraphrase Nietzsche, they reveal the prejudices of the philosopher. When, as today, peoples throughout Europe and beyond are protesting at their socio-economic circumstances, it is not because they are malcontents due to an intrinsic physiological sickness caused by chaotic drives; it is due to public, external socio-economic conditions themselves. Nietzsche's prejudices blind him to this.
Notes
1. #34. Skirmishes of an Untimely Man. Friedrich Nietzsche. Twilight of the Idols. Cambridge University Press 2005. #44. Friedrich Nietzsche. Beyond Good & Evil. Cambridge University Press 2002.
2. Chapters 1 & 2. Daniel A. Ahern. Nietzsche as Cultural Physician. Pennsylvania State University Press. 1995.
3. First Treatise: 'Good & Bad', 'Good & Evil'. Friedrich Nietzsche. On the Genealogy of Morality. Hackett. 1998.
4. I perceive ambiguity concerning the issue of the sickness that Nietzsche claims the slave masses and the Priests suffer from. Some places in his text, he writes that adopted practices inculcate the sickness; in others the sickness is innate due to the inner turmoil of the drives. Obviously if adoptive and social practices incur sickness then this is contrary to Nietzsche's thesis and social factors are to blame for the ills of the many. [For example see GM1 #6 cf gm GM3 #11]
5. #7 Genealogy of Morality op. cit.
6. #17, 18. Third Treatise. On the Genealogy of Morality
7. #4. The Problem of Socrates. Twilight of the Idols.
8. #6, 7. ibid.
9. #8. Ibid.
10. #62. Friedrich Nietzsche. The Anti-Christ. Cambridge University Press 2005.
11. #203. Beyond Good & Evil. op. cit.
12. #34. Skirmishes of an Untimely Man. Twilight of the Idols.
13. #6. What the Germans Lack. #1,2,4,6,7,9. The Problem of Socrates #37 Skirmishes of an Untimely Man. Twilight of the Idols. #13,14,15,16,17. Third Treatise. Genealogy of Morality. P. 21. et alibi. Ahern. op cite above.
14. #1,2. Four Great Errors. Twilight of the Idols.
15. See my essay Nietzsche and Will to Power. http://www.Philosophypathways.com/newsletter/issue143.html
16. #37, 48 Skirmishes of an Untimely Man. Twilight of the Idols.#258. Beyond Good & Evil. #125. Friedrich Nietzsche. The Will to Power. It is clear that Nietzsche conflates equality with being identical.
17. #44. Beyond Good & Evil.
18. #7. The Anti-Christian.
19. #62. Beyond Good & Evil. Compare this with BGE #225 where Nietzsche counterposes pity for the Creator with pity for the Creature. The former being a 'tough love' approach as opposed to the latter Christian/Modern Ideas concept of pity.
20. #44 Beyond Good & Evil.
21. See #98, 446, 451, 452, 473 480.
Friedrich Nietzsche. Human, All Too Human. Cambridge University Press 2000.
22. Gregory Moore. Nietzsche, Biology, Metaphor. Cambridge University Press 2002.
23. P.29 ibid.
(c) Martin Jenkins 2012.
E-mail: martinllowarch.jenkins@virgin.net
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The Meaning of the Earth: Nietzsche’s Philosopher Creators.
By
Martin Jenkins.
“That the ubermensch shall be the meaning of the Earth’. Zarathustra. 1
In a previous article Nietzsche: The Politics of Physiology, I described Nietzsche’s opposition to ‘Modern Ideas’ of equality, democracy, socialism and anarchism.2 These, like Christianity before them, were for him, symptoms of a diseased physiology. Here, the drives of peoples were in chaos, were disaggregated. This made them feel sick, exhausted, depressed. The solution for this sickness was the venting of ressentiment against the privileged and later, with the intervention of the Priests, willing in a certain direction ‘for man would rather will than not will at all’. The latter was provided by Christianity as it willed the ascetic ideal: the denial of this world in favour of another one. Its inheritor of European ‘Modern ideas’ wills equality, community, pity. For Nietzsche, this represented not the triumph of Civilisation but on the contrary the triumph of a decadent human type which is identical with the decline of Western culture. In the nineteenth century, themes inherent to Christianity manifested in secular ‘modern’ ideas and the momentum of decadence continued.
So, to Nietzsche’s solution to the problem of ‘Modern Ideas’. In the following paper, I will briefly explore his writings about the New Philosopher Creators and their tasks.
The Decline of the West.
To recap: the modern ‘democratic movement is the heir of Christianity’ and Nietzsche observed its progress during his lifetime. 3 Like others at the time, he seems to have concerns about the onset of democracy and socialism but specifically, he gave it them an ontological justification. Nietzsche believed Modern Ideas were inimical to life - life understood as will to power, will to power informing types of human physiology. Corresponding to the dominating physiology in Europe, the fundamental values of the ‘democratic movement’ were equality and pity. Equality before God is taken from Christianity and applied secularly against those who are taken to blame for the suffering of the masses. Equality is symptomatic of decline, physiological decline which is simultaneously a decline in Will to Power. Equality renders every one as identical and homogeneous. The ‘herd’ - Nietzsche’s pejorative term for the above mentioned socio-political movements-also values Pity. All suffering is unjustified and people blame the socio-political conditions of 19th century industrial capitalism for their discontent whereas Nietzsche believes discontent is occasioned upon the physiological diremption of inner drives.
Building on earlier Christian balms for the anarchy of physiological drives, modern ideas emphasise the benefits of mechanical activity or work; of achieving small joy by doing good, relieving, comforting, helping others. This mutuality with others formulates a community with others, the formation of a herd. 4 Thus we arrive at equality, pity, workism, mutuality, a community or herd identity. These valuations coax the vapid will to power of the sick European physiology by giving the drives direction thereby marshalling will to power achieving social domination.
This willing appears to be the key as Nietzsche writes in On the Genealogy of Morality at the end of the final Treatise: for man would even will nothingness than not will at all. 5 So humanity would rather will Modern Ideas than not will at all: humanity need something to will. Unfortunately, the degree and intensity of this modern willing decreases what humanity is capable of. Thus throughout his writings from Zarathustra onwards can be read, a sustained
critique of Modern Ideas. Nietzsche’s panacea for the sickness of modernity would arise because:
“The same new conditions that generally lead to a levelling and mediocritisation of man - a useful,
industrious, abundantly serviceable and able herd animal man - are to the highest degree suitable
for giving rise to exceptional people who possess the most dangerous and attractive qualities….
…What I’m trying to say is: the democratisation of Europe is at the same time an involuntary
exercise in the breeding of tyrants - understanding that word in every sense, including the most
spiritual.” 7
For exceptional individuals will accidentally emerge, inherently compelled to challenge the restrictive ideas of modernity. Arising from different class or climate based regions, the modern European is physiologically adaptive yet, this, according to Nietzsche, precludes the powerfulness of their type. These Europeans will probably become garrulous, impotent but eminently employable workers who will need masters as they need their daily bread; democratisation makes for a type prepared for slavery -in the most subtle sense. 8 Whereas there may occur lapses into Anarchism and Nationalism, the physiological process of adaption will produce the very opposite of that envisaged by the advocates of Modern Ideas. It will create the ideal conditions for the emergence of outstanding, exceptional individuals, what Nietzsche above terms ‘tyrants’ or Philosopher Creators. 8
For instance, being so used to obeying rather than commanding, herd animal people would feel guilty about commanding. This bad conscience about commanding is evidenced and offset argues Nietzsche, by the success of Napoleon -he gives the masses palpable relief that they have a commander and lawgiver who free’s them from the responsibility. Again, the levelling of equality will be felt as incommensurate to the valuations, affects borne of an intense, complexity of a stronger, comprehensive physiology which in turn, is identical with stronger drives or instantiations of will to power.
Ubermensch.
The example of Napoleon provides hints as to Nietzsche’s Ubermensch. This term first appears in Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Here, Zarathustra heralds the coming of the Ubermensch who will overcome existing humanity. 9 In other words, humanity as the culmination of 2000 years of Christianity, epitomised in Modern Ideas, will be overcome by the Ubermensch, variously translated as the ‘man of tomorrow‘, ‘the man beyond and over man‘ and not uniquely, the Superman. After Zarathustra, the term Ubermensch does not appear. A new term for the same theme emerges in Beyond Good and Evil - the Philosopher Creator. 10
These are not Philosopher’s in the sense of mere academic labourers; these are Commanders and Lawgivers compelled to create values by will to power. These ‘true’ philosophers:
“ ..reach for the future with a creative hand and everything that is and was becomes
a means, a tool, a hammer for them. Their ‘knowing’ is creating, their creating
is a legislating, their will to truth is - will to power.” 11.
Who are They?
A quantum of Will to Power constitutes a drive, ipso facto, the philosopher creators are possessed of stronger drives than others. 12 Such drives do not lapse into a frenzy but are given coherence by being subordinated to and by, stronger commanding drives. This is
coterminous with a healthy physiology - not to negate and suppress the raging drives, but to value them as a stimulus to life; to control, outwit and incorporate them.13 Then as Nietzsche writes: ‘what emerges are those amazing, incomprehensible and unthinkable ones, those human riddles destined for victory and seduction.’ Alcibiades, Caesar, the Hohenstaufen Frederick II and Leonardo da Vinci are cited perhaps, indicative of his Philosopher Creator types. Contrary to equality yet in accordance with life, there will be order of rank denoting the will to power a person is by ’how much and how many things someone could carry and take upon himself, how far someone could stretch his responsibility’. 14 Following from an abundance of will or comprehensive will to power ’only this will be called greatness: the ability to be just as multiple as whole, as wide as full’.15 As befits their nature, such Philosopher Creators will sit atop an aristocratic society enhancing humanity. 16
The alternative is to find escape in the panacea found in rest, lack of disturbance, a flight from the world of drives into another - a ‘Sabbath of Sabbaths’ as St Augustine termed this, which was his and historic Christianity’s solution: the ascetic ideal and it informs the Modern Ideas Nietzsche attacks. 17 He dismisses the hopes of the European herd man seeking its eternal green pasture society of happiness, or of the socialist’s with their man of the future. Like the impending heaven of Christians before them, Modern people seek to escape the present in their hopes of future redemption in a new society, the ‘new Jerusalem’; one that ends of the ‘exploitation of man by man’ and the like.
What will they do?
Nietzsche doesn’t provide a manifesto as to what his Philosopher Creators will do although pointers can be gleaned from his writings. Mainly, they will re-evaluate the European values that have dominated for 2000 years. 18
Firstly, the Philosopher Creators have the responsibility for the overall development of humanity. So against the ‘law of chance’ and accident that has previously prevailed, the Philosopher Creators task is to ‘select and breed’ and cultivate human beings hegemonically employing religions [and political/economic situations] to this end. 19 Such religion will be distinct from the previous ones that valorise suffering into a principle; it will not preserve the ‘failures and degenerates, the diseased and infirm, those who necessarily suffer’, will not preserve too much of that which should have been destroyed - as Nietzsche claims Christian breeding has done thus contributing to the deterioration of the European race. 20 The new Creator Philosophers are aware of this failing and, of what humanity could instead be bred to be.
Secondly, as commanders and legislators, their creation of values is Will to Power. Instead of the egalitarianism inherent to Christianity and Modern Ideas, they will inculcate an ‘order of rank’ in things as well as people. This ranking is expressive of respective degree of will to power in the strength of inner drives, the ability of such drives to incorporate of other internal and external drives in creative mastering growth manifested in an individual and, the multiple responsibilities such a more comprehensive, complex person can endure. 21
Unlike the levelling of life by equality, an Aristocratic society allows vital life, as growing ascending power, as will to power, to fully realise itself. In so doing, it naturally allows the enhancement of humanity.
“Every enhancement so far in the type ‘man’ has been the work of an aristocratic society
and that is how it will be again and again…“ 22
So what Nietzsche envisages is an aristocratic and hierarchical society composed of ranks equivalent to their instantiations of will to power. Just as internal drives of a healthy physiology are ordered by stronger drives incorporating the weaker ones to their interests, to their ‘will’; so social ranks are incorporated by the new will that humanity follows - that of the aristos - the Philosopher Creators.
What is Enhancement?
How does the new aristocracy enhance humanity? The answer I think, is to be found in the theories of evolution that influenced Nietzsche’s thinking and which are indispensable for understanding the general thrust of his ‘philosophy’. From studying the non-Darwinian evolutionist Carl Nageli amongst others, Nietzsche believed that evolution was generated by a perfection principle. 23 Perfection is a tendency toward greater complexity in an organism. As Gregory Moore writes:
“Nietzsche sees both power and complexity as indices of perfection; or rather, greater organic
complexity is the result of a more fundamental will to power in the organism.” 24
Hence his emphasis on the complexity of strong drives in the Philosopher Creators. Note that evolutionary enhancement occurs in an individual organism and not a species;
individuals and not the species are the site of evolutionary change. The species had completed adaption eschewing further variability. Hence Nietzsche critique’s of the ‘herd European’ with its corresponding modern values of equality, levelling, and identity; which reinforce stagnation. Humanity will be enhanced through exceptional individuals - the Philosopher Creators. The suppression of such individuals by the homogenisation of modern ideas would prevent further human evolution. Of course, Nietzsche’s conclusions rest upon the veracity of his premises-the evolutionary theories he relied upon. Theories which are at the very least, contestable.
Assuming Nietzsche’s vision was realised, what would such a society be like?
He writes of his admiration for the Romans, their values against those of Judea so perhaps this indicates the type of society he would like to see? 25 In place of equality will be a hierarchy based on order of rank, incorporated to the will of the Philosopher Creators. 26 Petty politics of Nationalism’s and Anarchism’s will be replaced by the single Will of Grand Politics of a united Europe led by the Philosopher-Creators which, will confront the single will of Russia for domination of the Earth. 27
Conclusion.
It is impossible to fully appreciate Nietzsche’s writings, his doctrine of Will to Power, Ubermensch/Philosopher Creators and his disdain for ‘Modern Ideas and Christianity without an understanding of the theories of evolution on which they are based. For Nietzsche, the justification of human society is the existence of the Philosopher Creators. Their will to power/physiology follows from evolution. That is, to reiterate, theories of evolution that are questionable, perhaps even refuted. If refuted then the whole of Nietzsche’s philosophy especially his criticism of modernity, is also refuted.
References.
1. Zarathustra’s Prologue. Friedrich Nietzsche. Thus Spoke Zarathustra.
Penguin 1969.
2. Martin Jenkins. Nietzsche: The Politics of Physiology.
Pathways to Philosophy 176.
3. #203. Friedrich Nietzsche. Beyond Good and Evil.
Cambridge University Press. 2002.
4. #18 Third Treatise. Friedrich Nietzsche. On the Genealogy of Morality.
Hackett. 1998.
5. #28 ibid.
6. #242. Beyond Good and Evil. Op cite.
7. # 40, 41. Skirmishes of an Untimely Man.
Friedrich Nietzsche. Twilight of the Idols.
Cambridge University Press. 2006.
8. #242. Beyond Good and Evil. Op cite.
9. Prologue. Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Op cite.
10. #44, 203, 211. Beyond Good and Evil. Op cite.
11. #211. Ibid.
12. #13. First Treatise. Genealogy of Morality. Op cite.
13. #200. Beyond Good and Evil. Op cite.
14. #212. Ibid.
15. #213. Ibid.
16. #258. Ibid.
17. #200. Ibid.
& The Problem of Socrates. Here Nietzsche describes the anarchic chaos inherent to the
bodies of the Greeks. The remedy for this as provided by Socrates was the imposition of
Reason and Logic. Twilight of the Idols. op cite.
18. #203. Beyond Good and Evil. Op cite.
19. #61. Ibid.
20. #62. Ibid.
21. #108, 117, 212, Ibid.
248, 230.
#858. Friedrich Nietzsche. The Will to Power.
Vintage Books. 1968.
22. #257,8. Beyond Good and Evil. Op cite.
23. Part 1: Evolution. Gregory Moore. Nietzsche, Biology & Metaphor.
Cambridge University Press. 2002.
24. P. 32. Ibid.
25. #16. First Treatise. Genealogy of Morality. Op cite.
26. #228. Beyond Good and Evil. Op cite.
27. #208. Ibid.
#39. Twilight of the Idols. Op cite.
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